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Quantum Channels

Introduction

Quantum Channels are generalizations of Quantum Operations. Since, in general our operations maybe noisy (inherently) and the system we are dealing with maybe open so Quantum Channels us the study of noisy open Quantum Operations.

ρUρ

The above only holds for closed quantum systems. Thus, in case of noisy open quantum systems we have the following.

ρEρ

Here, E is a combination of:

  • unitaries (U)
  • adding systems (ρρσ)
  • subtracting systems or partial tracing (ρABtrBρAB=ρA)

Review of Density Matrices

Moreover, to deal with noisy open systems we also need to review density matrices which are the general way of representing noisy quantum states.

ρnoisy quantum state
Enoisy open quantum channel

Now since, ρ is positive semi-definite thus, 1+||a||20||a||1.

This results in the Bloch Ball representation for general mixed state qubits, which serves as a generalization of the Bloch Sphere that serves as representation for pure state qubits. Pure state qubits have eigenvalues of 0 or 1, λ(ρ)=0 or 1.

The eigenvalue of the maximally mixed state is I/2 where the state is actually given by the following.

12(|00|+|11|)12(|++|+||)

Generalized Quantum Operations

We can refer to Generalized Quantum Operations as Quantum Channels (noisy and open) whose definitions we shall rediscover and formalize here.

Now, it should be noted that there are three major equivalent formalisms for Quantum Channels:

  • Operational (Steinspring)
  • Mathemtically Simplified (Kraus)
  • Axiomatic (TPCP maps)

Introduction to Steinspring Representation

For closed systems we have a probabilistic combinations of the above (noisy closed channels).

|ψU|ψ
|ψψ|U|ψψ|U
ρUρ U

This can be generalized for noisy open channels as combinations of unitaries (U), adding systems together (ρρσ) and subtracting systems (ρABtrB(ρAB)=ρA).

But why is partial tracing allowed? Doesn't this "delete" information?

The information has basically flown out of your lab to the heavens (but still exists in nature) and in most cases, you simply can't access it anymore, kinda like your ex-girlfriend.

tr(ρAB)=b(IAb|) ρ (IA|b)=(IAtrB)(ρAB)

Isometry

An operator VL(X), V:XY is called an isometry if and only if ||Vv||=||v|| for all vX. In other words, an isometry is a genralization of norm preserving operators.

Now, properties of linear isometries:

  • v|v=Vv|Vv=v|VV|v
  • Thus, VV=IX.

Linear isometries are not always unitary operators, though, as those require additionally that X=Y and VV=IX.

By the Mazur–Ulam theorem, any isometry of normed vector spaces over R is affine. Affine transformations are those that preserve lines and parallelism (but not necessarily distances and angles).

Steinspring Representation

Isometries allow us to restate the requirements of a noisy open quantum channel. Now, it can be formed by combinations of isometries and partial trace. Moreover, the purpose of the partial trace is to trash the environment shit out of my lab.

Thus, we have the following formalism.

V:ABE
E:L(A)L(B)
E(ρ)=trE(Vρ V)

Partial tracing can be delayed (deferred tracing), an idea similar to deferred measurements. Also, from a philosophical standpoint (Church of the Larger Hilbert Space) you can defer it forever.

Now, the above circuit is equivalent to the below circuit. As a result, inductively, combinations of isometries and partial trace is equivalent to the E operator.

Kraus Operator Picture

We can fix a orthonormal bases {|e} for E, and have {Ve} such that

V=eVe|e

where VeL(A),Ve:AB and furthermore

I=VV=(e1Ve1e1|)(e2Ve2|e2)

such that VeVein general and thus, we have the Kraus operator condition (stated below).

I=eVeVe

Thus, we can have a equivalent and simplified formalism of the Steinspring Operator (E), where {Ve} are Kraus operators.

E(ρ)=trE(Vρ V)=trE(e1,e2Ve1ρ Ve2|e1e2|)
E(ρ)=eVeρ Ve

Conversely, given {Ve} satisfying Kraus operator conditions, E(ρ)=eVeρ Ve is a quantum operator with V=eVe|e as the isometry involved in the transformation.

Examples of Kraus Operators for Quantum Channels

  1. E(ρ)=Uρ U single Kraus operator {U}
  2. E(ρ)=epeUe ρ Ue Kraus operators {peUe}
  3. tr(ρAB)=b(IAb|) ρ (IA|b) where Vb=(IAb|B) thus we also have the following holding true, bVbVb=bIA|bb|=IAIB=I.
  4. Ultimate Refrigerator: E(ρ)=|00|, regardless of the initial state ρ.

    V0=|00|,V1=|01|
    V0ρ V0+V1ρ V1=|00|
  5. Depolarizing Channel: E(ρ)=(1p)ρ+ρ(I/2) simple kind of white noise effect

  6. Amplitude Damping Channel: Eγ(ρ)=K0ρ K0+K1ρ K1 where we have the following

    K0=[1001γ] and,  K1=[0γ00]

Axiomatic Definitions

By God, properties of E should be as follows:

  • Linear (assume this or die, basically) and Hermitian preserving
  • Trace preserving (TP) such that tr(E(ρ))=tr(ρ)=1
  • Completely positive (CP) since ρ0(EI)(ρ)0

But why completely positive? Well, because we are dealing with isometries of form ABE.

Here, completely positive means that if E is applied on a subsystem, then the complete system and the subsystems must remain positive.

Equivalence of TPCP maps and Kraus operators

Equivalence Theorem: If E(ρ)=eVeρ Ve then E is TPCP and converse holds true as well.

This implies that the map NJ(N) is injective. In fact it is known as the Choi-Jamiołkowski isomorphism — a correspondence between quantum channels and quantum states (described by density matrices).

Equivalence of Operators: Given 2 operators E and F with operator elements {Ei} and {Fi} respectively, if E=F then

Ei=juijFj

Measurements as Quantum Operations

Measurement can be thought of as a quantum operation where the input is any quantum state and the output is classical, E(ρ)=xpx|xx| (diagonal density matrix).

The probabilities, px, should depend on the state. Further, px should be a linear function of the density matrix px=tr(Mxρ). From this we can work out the properties that Mx should obey:

  • Normalization: tr(E(ρ))=tr(px)=tr(Mxρ)=1Mx=I
  • Positive Semi-definite: (EI)(ρ)0px0 thus tr(Mxρ)0, Mx over ρ thus, we have Mx0Mxs are positive semi-definite Mx=ExEx

Thus, we have the following:

xMx=I
Mx0

These conditions still leave room for noisy measurements, etc.

We can also talk about non-demolition measurements, which do not discard the quantum systems aftermeasurements. Consider the following quantum channel.

E(ρ)=eVeρVe|ee|=eVeρVetr(VeρVe)tr(VeρVe)|ee|

This channel has the following interpretation: with probability as

pe=tr(VeρVe)=tr(VeVeρ)=tr(Meρ)

the state of the system after the application of this channel is ρe=(VeρVe)/tr(VeρVe). This is similar to having a measurement that outputs the post measured state ρe with probability pe.

Quantum Norms and Distance Metrics

Motivation: Now that we have defined channels and states of information, how do you differentiate between two items of information? What does it mean to say that information is preserved by some process?

Well for these questions it is necessary to develop distance measures. There is a certain arbitrariness in the way distance measures are defined, both classically and quantum mechanically, and the community of people studying quantum computation and quantum information has found it convenient to use a variety of distance measures over the years. Two of those measures, the trace distance and the fidelity, have particularly wide currency today.

Norms

Norm is a distance metric such that

  1. |cv|=|c|.|v|
  2. |v+w||v|+|w|
  3. |v|=0 iff v=0

Examples of norms are as follows

  • Manhattan (L1)
  • Euclidean (L2)
  • Lp norm |v|Lp=(vip)1/p

Schatten p-norms

  1. L1 norm corresponds to probability distributions
  2. L2 norm corresponds to pure states
  3. L=maxi|vi|

Similarly, schatten p-norm : |M|Sp=|σ(M)|Sp where σ(M) is a vector of singular values of a matrix, say M.

S1=singular values
S2=singular values2
S=maxi|singular values|

In case of density matrices (in general to positive semi-definite Hermitian operators), we have singular values = eigen values thus, σ(M)=λ(M).

|X|Sp=|σ(X)|Lp=(iσip)1/p

If X0, then σ(X)=λ(X) then, |X|S1=trX|ρ|S1=tr(ρ).

Thus, ρ is a density matrix ρ0 and |ρ|S1=1.

Measurements

Let us consider a simple system with {M,IM} as measurement operators.

Then, we have

M0,IM0MI
0MI
|M|S1

But why is it that two objects with different norms can co-exist in the same operator framework? The answer lies in the notion of duality.

Duality

Given a norm |.| there exists a dual norm such that, |x|=max|y|1|x,y|.

  1. L2 is dual to L2
  2. L1 and L are dual to each other
  3. S2 is dual to S2
  4. S1 and S are dual to each other

Introduction to Trace Norm

T(ρ,σ)=12|ρσ|S1=12 tr |ρσ|

Then, M where M denotes measurement,

|tr(Mρ)tr(Mσ)|=|tr(M(ρσ))||M|S|ρσ|S1|ρσ|S1=2T(ρ,σ)

In fact, we can tighten this inequality even further to obtain

|tr(Mρ)tr(Mσ)|T(ρ,σ)
T(ρ,σ)=maxM|tr M(ρσ)|
T(E(ρ)E(σ))maxM|tr M(ρσ|=T(ρ,σ)

and finally we get the required inequality

T(E(ρ),E(σ))T(ρ,σ)

Thus, I can never increase the distance of two states, no matter what. So, basically when you wanna protect against noise all we are doing is slowing down the rate of noise (indistinguishable nonsense).

Choi's Theorem

Let E:Cn×nCm×m be a linear map. Then, the following are equivalent:

  • E is n-positive (i.e. E(A)Cm×m is positive whenever ACn×n is positive).
  • The matrix ΓE, sometimes called the Choi matrix, is positive. Here the state ϕ is maximally entangled.

    ΓE=(idnE)(|ϕϕ|)
  • E is completely positive.

Solving a Lindblad Equation

Any ideal open quantum system will undergo Markovian dynamics provided that its evolution satisfies a Master equation.

dρdt=L(ρ)=i[H,ρ]+kγk(VkρVk12{VkVk,ρ})

Let ρ=12(I+rσ) and differentiate ρ(t) to obtain ρ˙(t) in terms of drdt.

dρdt=12(r˙xσx+r˙yσy+r˙zσz)

We equate ρ˙=L(ρ) using the above representation for ρ˙ and ρ and solve the equation by solving the individual differential equations obtained. After we solve for ρ, we obtain Λt.

Λt:ρ0ρt,~~~~~ρ(t)=Λt(ρ(0))

Now, with Choi's theorem we check if Λt is CP by checking whether ΓΛ is positive semi-definite.

ΓΛ=C|ψψ|
C=(IΛt)

Now, we find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of C and represent it as C=iλi|vi. Then, we can obtain Kraus operators {Ki}i such as follows (check below).

vi=[1/21/21/21/2]Ki=λi[1/21/21/21/2]