Quantum Channels
Introduction¶
Quantum Channels are generalizations of Quantum Operations. Since, in general our operations maybe noisy (inherently) and the system we are dealing with maybe open so Quantum Channels us the study of noisy open Quantum Operations.
The above only holds for closed quantum systems. Thus, in case of noisy open quantum systems we have the following.
Here,
- unitaries
- adding systems
- subtracting systems or partial tracing
Review of Density Matrices¶
Moreover, to deal with noisy open systems we also need to review density matrices which are the general way of representing noisy quantum states.
Now since,
This results in the Bloch Ball representation for general mixed state qubits, which serves as a generalization of the Bloch Sphere that serves as representation for pure state qubits. Pure state qubits have eigenvalues of
The eigenvalue of the maximally mixed state is
Generalized Quantum Operations¶
We can refer to Generalized Quantum Operations as Quantum Channels (noisy and open) whose definitions we shall rediscover and formalize here.
Now, it should be noted that there are three major equivalent formalisms for Quantum Channels:
- Operational (Steinspring)
- Mathemtically Simplified (Kraus)
- Axiomatic (TPCP maps)
Introduction to Steinspring Representation¶
For closed systems we have a probabilistic combinations of the above (noisy closed channels).
This can be generalized for noisy open channels as combinations of unitaries
But why is partial tracing allowed? Doesn't this "delete" information?
The information has basically flown out of your lab to the heavens (but still exists in nature) and in most cases, you simply can't access it anymore, kinda like your ex-girlfriend.
Isometry¶
An operator
Now, properties of linear isometries:
- Thus,
.
Linear isometries are not always unitary operators, though, as those require additionally that
By the Mazur–Ulam theorem, any isometry of normed vector spaces over
Steinspring Representation¶
Isometries allow us to restate the requirements of a noisy open quantum channel. Now, it can be formed by combinations of isometries and partial trace. Moreover, the purpose of the partial trace is to trash the environment shit out of my lab.
Thus, we have the following formalism.
Partial tracing can be delayed (deferred tracing), an idea similar to deferred measurements. Also, from a philosophical standpoint (Church of the Larger Hilbert Space) you can defer it forever.
Now, the above circuit is equivalent to the below circuit. As a result, inductively, combinations of isometries and partial trace is equivalent to the
Kraus Operator Picture¶
We can fix a orthonormal bases
where
such that
Thus, we can have a equivalent and simplified formalism of the Steinspring Operator
Conversely, given
Examples of Kraus Operators for Quantum Channels¶
single Kraus operator Kraus operators where thus we also have the following holding true, .-
Ultimate Refrigerator:
, regardless of the initial state . -
Depolarizing Channel:
simple kind of white noise effect -
Amplitude Damping Channel:
where we have the following
Axiomatic Definitions¶
By God, properties of
- Linear (assume this or die, basically) and Hermitian preserving
- Trace preserving (TP) such that
- Completely positive (CP) since
But why completely positive? Well, because we are dealing with isometries of form
Here, completely positive means that if
Equivalence of TPCP maps and Kraus operators¶
Equivalence Theorem: If
This implies that the map
Equivalence of Operators: Given
Measurements as Quantum Operations¶
Measurement can be thought of as a quantum operation where the input is any quantum state and the output is classical,
The probabilities,
- Normalization:
- Positive Semi-definite:
thus over thus, we have are positive semi-definite
Thus, we have the following:
These conditions still leave room for noisy measurements, etc.
We can also talk about non-demolition measurements, which do not discard the quantum systems aftermeasurements. Consider the following quantum channel.
This channel has the following interpretation: with probability as
the state of the system after the application of this channel is
Quantum Norms and Distance Metrics¶
Motivation: Now that we have defined channels and states of information, how do you differentiate between two items of information? What does it mean to say that information is preserved by some process?
Well for these questions it is necessary to develop distance measures. There is a certain arbitrariness in the way distance measures are defined, both classically and quantum mechanically, and the community of people studying quantum computation and quantum information has found it convenient to use a variety of distance measures over the years. Two of those measures, the trace distance and the fidelity, have particularly wide currency today.
Norms¶
Norm is a distance metric such that
iff
Examples of norms are as follows
- Manhattan (
) - Euclidean (
) norm
Schatten -norms¶
norm corresponds to probability distributions norm corresponds to pure states
Similarly, schatten
In case of density matrices (in general to positive semi-definite Hermitian operators), we have
If
Thus,
Measurements¶
Let us consider a simple system with
Then, we have
But why is it that two objects with different norms can co-exist in the same operator framework? The answer lies in the notion of duality.
Duality¶
Given a norm
is dual to and are dual to each other is dual to and are dual to each other
Introduction to Trace Norm¶
Then,
In fact, we can tighten this inequality even further to obtain
and finally we get the required inequality
Thus, I can never increase the distance of two states, no matter what. So, basically when you wanna protect against noise all we are doing is slowing down the rate of noise (indistinguishable nonsense).
Choi's Theorem¶
Let
is -positive (i.e. is positive whenever is positive).-
The matrix
, sometimes called the Choi matrix, is positive. Here the state is maximally entangled. -
is completely positive.
Solving a Lindblad Equation¶
Any ideal open quantum system will undergo Markovian dynamics provided that its evolution satisfies a Master equation.
Let
We equate
Now, with Choi's theorem we check if
Now, we find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of